In the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, papal contests haunted the Roman Catholic Church. The Papacy’s move to Avignon was supported by many and condemned by others. These events lead to two popes within Catholicism: a pope in Rome and another in Avignon.¹ Due to the Catholic doctrine of the pope having all authority and being infallible in some cases, many theologians began to question which pope was to be acknowledged. Furthermore, a third pope in Pisa entered the contest in 1410. ² The entrance of the third pope made those of the Conciliar Movement more aware that another ecumenical council was a necessity. ³ Therefore, the Council of Constance was called by the pope in Pisa in 1414 to settle the dispute. ⁴

Several issues were resolved at the Council's meeting. It was determined that “the pope, however divinely instituted his office, was not an absolute monarch but in some sense a constitutional ruler” and the church councils could exercise authority even over popes. ⁵ Secondly, a new pope was elected: Martin V who was able to unite the Catholic church for the first time in forty years. ⁶ Thirdly, Jan Hus, who was anathematized as a heretic, was unfairly executed at the council for his positions of Christ’s supreme authority and the true church as invisible rather than visible. ⁷

The Council of Constance was not only significant in its contemporary context, but it remains significant for Christians and students of divinity today. Of first importance, the events of the Council of Constance and its declarations make it apparent that unity within the church is to be desired in most cases. Schism is never something to be desired unless it proceeds out of contrary primary beliefs such as conflicting views of the Trinity or Christ’s natures. Of the primary doctrines, Christians should be united. Of the secondary and tertiary doctrines, Christians are at liberty to determine what they believe while remaining in unity with the Church. The second thing that the Council of Constance teaches proceeds from the first. If any of the primary doctrines of the faith are denied, it is proper to defend them the same way that Jan Hus defended Christ in the face of theological adversity.

If the Reformation made anything apparent to the Catholic Church, it made it known that the church was in serious need of reformation. Therefore, from 1545-63 the Catholic church launched its counter-reformation in the Council of Trent. ⁸ Of the doctrines discussed, the selling of church offices and the appointing of family members to positions of authority were at the forefront. This particular debate led to “Trent renew[ing] denunciation of simony (selling church offices) and nepotism (appointing family members).” ⁹ Another issue discussed was the living situation and income of priests and bishops. Prior to Trent, priests and bishops could hold titles and receive income from areas of ministry without residing in those areas. Trent, therefore, made it necessary for ministers to reside in their area of ministry. ¹⁰ It also became apparent that the Protestants had begun to educate their ministers very well, so the Catholics too sought educational reform at the council. ¹¹ Lastly, and perhaps the most well known determination of the Council of Trent, is the council’s definition of Justification. Similarly to Protestants, “Trent agreed that we cannot save ourselves, but it affirmed that God’s sanctifying grace working in us, with our free cooperation, makes us worthy of eternal life.” ¹² This position is held within Catholicism today.

It is too often that Protestants critique the Catholic Church to an unnecessary level. While the Catholic Church was in need of serious reform five-hundred years ago, and indeed is still in need of reform, suitable action was taken by the Catholics at the Council of Trent that solved many issues. When the Reformation began, the issue of most importance was that of penance and indulgences. The Catholic church has since abolished the selling and purchasing of indulgences, Luther's main critique . However, the church has held its position on penance through the means of confession, prayer, and service; further articulating its position of Justification through faith and the cooperation of works.

On a personal level of application, individuals of the Christian faith, both Protestants and Catholics, can look upon Trent to learn about proper Christian conduct. That is, in regards to church offices, Christians should refrain from the practices of simony and nepotism. Furthermore, it teaches a Christian work-ethic in that Christians should only earn what they deserve in terms of titles and income. These two rewards for the work of ministry are the Earthy counterparts to the heavenly reward of ministry. The three rewards together should encourage ministers to work faithfully and diligently. Lasty, Christians of all types should value and take advantage of the educational institutes and tools the Protestant and Catholic reformers established. They are a means of spiritual enlightenment that lead to healthy ministry.

In the early seventeenth century, Jacob Arminius interpreted the Scriptures through the lens of Arminianism. In 1610, the Arminians influenced by Arminius articulated their position in a remonstrance of five points. ¹³ The response of the Dutch Calvinists occurred at the Synod of Dordrecht or Dort. Their summation of soteriology occurred in seven points as they responded to the remonstance’s five points. The seven points of the Canons of Dort are summarized today as the acronym TULIP: Total Depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Irresistible Grace, and Perseverance of the Saints. ¹⁴ These positions are otherwise known as the five points of Calvinism. However, they do not contain the summation of Calvin’s entire theology as the goal of the Synod of Dort was not to produce a systematic confession, but a specific critique of Arminianism.

The Canons of Dort have gained significant influence in the modern era in a resurgence of Calvinism amongst Christians of all denominational backgrounds. However, it is unfair to call subscribers of the Canons in the modern era as inherently Calvinistic. Calvin’s theology was composed of these five points, a high view of Scripture, the magisterial authority of presbyters, and an efficient view of the sacraments. Self-identifying Calvinists today mostly do not have these things in common with Calvin apart from Presbyterians. In order to see a true resurgence of Calvinism, an emphasis on Presbyterian polity and Sacramental efficacy is necessary.

Regardless of what comprises true Calvinism, Christians of all denominations can benefit from understanding the Canons of Dort. They promote a harsh view of sin and the state of humanity, but also a very high view of God and His purpose in Redemption: to glorify Himself by saving His elect. They remind Christians that God has saved them from themselves, for Himself, and to Himself. They encourage God’s people to hold fast to the truths of Scripture, to preach the Word, and love those around them.